大学生英语毕业论文
大学生英语毕业论文
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大学生英语毕业论文篇1
浅谈非语言交际中的身势语
摘要
学习啦在线学习网 “身势语”同语言一样，都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中，身势语的意义并不完全相同。各民族有不同的非语言交际方式.例如：不同的民族在谈话时，对双方保持多大距离才合适有不同的看法;谈话双方身体接触的次数多少因文化不同而各异;在目光接触这一方面也有许多规定：看不看对方，什么时候看，看多久，什么人可以看，什么人不可以看;在某些场合下，在中国和讲英语的国家无论微笑还是大笑，通常表示友好﹑赞同﹑满意﹑高兴﹑愉快，但是在某些场合，中国人的笑会引起西方人的反感;打手势时动作稍有不同，就会与原来的意图有所区别，对某种手势理解错了，也会引起意外的反应等等。因此，要用外语进行有效的交际，在说某种语言时就得了解说话人的手势，动作，举止等所表示的意思。而有些权威人士认为两者相互依存。在大多数情况下这是对的。在某些情况下，人体动作与所说的话不一致，口头说的与身势语表达的意思不一样。这时要借助其他信息或从整个情况中猜测说话人的意思，从某种意义上说，一切身势语都要放在一定的情景下去理解;忽视了整个情景就会发生误解。而通过中美身势语对比研究表明，两者有相似的地方，也有差异的地方，说明了解另一种语言中身势语的重要性。可见，真正掌握两种语言的人在换用另一种语言说话时也要换用另一种身势语。这样才能达到更好的交际效果。
关键词: 非语言交际 身势语 不同文化 不同方式
学习啦在线学习网 Body Language on Nonverbal Communication
Abstract
“Body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture. But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures; one could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at; smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment, and, this is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries, however, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading. A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities and diversities of body language. It shows the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better.
Key words: nonverbal communication body language different culture different ways
1. Introduction
When a Chinese converses with a Canadian or American friend of the opposite sex, would it be indecent to be looking at the other person?
If two young friends of the same sex walk with their arms around each other’s shoulders or hold hands, would this be regarded by English-speaking people as proper?
Does nodding the head mean “yes”, and shaking the head mean “no” in all cultures?
There are not questions about language, but about body language, about nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication, composed of pictures, dresses, eye contact, spatial signals, gestures and so on, is as important as verbal communication.
People communicate in many different ways. One of the most important ways, of course, is through language. Moreover, when language is written it can be completely isolated from the context in which it occurs; it can be treated as if it were an independent and self-contained process.
Like all animals, people communicate by their actions as well as by the noises they make. It is a sort of biological anomaly of man—something like the giraffe’s neck, or the pelican’s beak—that our vocal noises have so for outgrown in importance and frequency all our other methods of signaling to one another. Language is obviously essential for human beings, but it is not the whole story of human communication. Not by a long shot.
学习啦在线学习网 The study of nonverbal communication should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situation body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what nonverbal communication communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a case, all nonverbal communication should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
2. The necessity and importance of learning body language on nonverbal communication
学习啦在线学习网 Although we may not realize it, when we converse with others we communicate by much more than words. By our expressions, gestures and other body movements we send messages to these around us a smile and an outstretched hand show welcome. A form is a sign of displeasure. Nodding one’s head means agreement—“Yes”. Waving an outstretched hand with open palm is the gesture for “goodbye”. Leaning back in one’s seat and yawning at a talk or lecture shows lack of interest, boredom. These gestures have come to be accepted in general as having the meanings mentioned, at last to Chinese and Americans. There are parts of the way in which we communicate. This “body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture.
But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. The answers to the questions at the beginning of this chapter are all “no”. Even nodding the head may have a different meaning. To Nepalese, Sri Lankans, some Indians and some Eskimos it means not “yes”, but “no”. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language.
学习啦在线学习网 Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research—Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn t have grown into a normal person". It s also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students characters.
3. The concrete types and application of the body language
学习啦在线学习网 3.1 Types of body language
学习啦在线学习网 3.1.1 Distance between people conversing
Watch an Arab and an Englishman in conversation. The Arab, showing friendliness in the manner of his people, will stand close to the Englishman. The latter will move back, watching to the Englishman. The Arab will then move forward to be closer; the Englishman will keep moving backward. By the end of the conversation, the two may be quite a distance from the conversation; the two may be quite a distance from the place where they were originally standing!
Here, distance between the two is the key factor. Different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing. According to studies, it seems there are four main distances in American social and business relations: intimate, personal, social, and public. Intimate distance ranges from direct physical contact to a distance of about 45 centimeters; this is for people’s most private relations and activities, between man and wife, for example. Personal distance is about 45—80 centimeters and is most common when friends, acquaintances and relatives converse. Social distance may be anywhere from about 1.30 meters to 3 meters; people who work together, or people doing business, as well as most of those in conversation at social gatherings tend to keep a distance is farther than any of the above and is generally for speakers in public and for teachers in classrooms.
学习啦在线学习网 The important thing to keep in mind is that most English-speaking people do not like people to be too close. Being too far apart, of course, may be awkward, but being too close makes people uncomfortable, unless there is a reason, such as showing affection or encouraging intimacy. But that is another matter.
3.1.2 Physical contact
The appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures. Figures from a study offer interesting insight into this matter. Pairs of individuals sitting and chatting in college shops in different places were observed for at last one hour each. The number of times that either one touched the other in that one hour was recorded, as follows: London, 0; Gainesville, Florida, 2; Pairs, 10; San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180. These figures speak for themselves. (Robinett, 1978)
In English-speaking countries, physical contact is generally avoided in conversation among ordinary friends or acquaintances. Merely touching someone may cause an unpleasant reaction. If one touches another person accidentally, he/she usually utters an apology such as “Sorry, Oh, I’m sorry, Excuse me.”
In China, a common complaint of western mothers is that Chinese often fondle their babies and very small children. Such behavior—whether touching, patting, hugging or kissing—can be quite embarrassing and awkward for the mothers. They know that no harm is meant, and that such gestures are merely signs of friendliness or affection, therefore they cannot openly show their displeasure. On the other hand, such actions in their own culture would be considered rude, intrusive and offensive and could arouse a strong dislike and even repugnance. So the mothers often stand by and watch in awkward silence, with mixed emotions, even when the fondling is by Chinese friends or acquaintances.
Going beyond the milder forms of touching, we shall take up the matter of hugging and embracing in public. This practice is fairly common among women in many countries. And in most of the more industrialized countries, it occurs frequently between husband and wife and close members of the family when meeting after a period of absence. Hugging and embracing among men, however, is a different matter. Among Arabs, Russians, French, and in several of the east European and Mediterranean countries, a warm hug and a kiss on the cheeks are a standard way of welcome. The same is true with some Latin Americans. In East Asia and in the English-speaking countries, though, the practice is seldom seen. A simple handshake is the custom. The story is told of what happened not long ago when the Japanese prime minister at the time, Mr. Fukuda, went to the U.S. on a state visit. When he stepped out of his car in front of the white house, he was greeted by the American president whit a “bear hug”. The prime minister was flabbergasted; others of the Japanese delegation were amazed; many Americans were surprised—it was so unusual and so unexpected. If the president had bowed low in Japanese fashion, it would have been less a surprise than to be greeted in a way so uncommon in either country!
学习啦在线学习网 The matter of physical contact between members of the same sex in English-speaking countries is a delicate one. Once past childhood, the holding of hands, or walking with an arm around another’s shoulder is not considered proper. The implication is homosexuality, and homosexuality generally arouses strong social disapproval in these countries.
3.1.3 Eye contact
学习啦在线学习网 Eye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at. These passages from the book Body Language (Fast, 1971) are amusing as well as informative:
“Tow strangers seated across from each other in a railway dining car have the option of introducing themselves and facing a meal of inconsequential and perhaps boring talk, or ignoring each other and desperately trying to avoid each other’s glance. A writer, describing such a situation in an essay, wrote, ‘they re-read the menu, they fool with the cutlery, they inspect their own fingernails as if seeing them for the first time. Comes the inevitable moment when glances meet, but they meet only to shoot instantly away and out the window for an intent view of the passing scene.’ ”
学习啦在线学习网 He points out that with people who are unfamiliar:
学习啦在线学习网 “We must void staring at them, and yet we must also avoid ignoring them… We look at them long enough to make it quite clear that we see them, and then we immediately look away.
There are different formulas for the exchange of glances depending on where the meeting takes place. If you pass someone in the street you may eye the oncoming person till you are about eight feet apart, then you must look away as you pass. Before the eight-foot distance is reached, each will signal in which direction he will pass. This is done with a brief look in that direction. Each will veer slightly, and the passing is done smoothly.”
学习啦在线学习网 In conversations with people who know each other, however, American custom demands that there should be eye contact. This applies to both the speaker and the listener. For either one not to look at the other person could imply a number of things, among which are fear, contempt, uneasiness, guilt, indifference, even in public speaking there should be plenty of eye contact. For a speaker to “burry his nose in his manuscript”, to read a speech instead of looking at and talking to hid audience, as some Chinese speakers are in the habit of doing, would be regarded as inconsiderate and disrespectful.
学习啦在线学习网 In conversation, a person shows that he is listening by looking at the other person’s eyes or face. If the other person is speaking at some length, the listener will occasionally make sounds like “Hmm”, “Ummm”, or nod his head to indicate his attention. If he agrees with the speaker, he may nod or smile. If he disagrees or has some reservations, he may slant his head to one side, raise an eyebrow, have a quizzical look.
Staring at people or holding a glance too long is considered improper in English-speaking countries. Even when the look may be one of appreciation—as of beauty—it may make people uneasy and embarrassed. Many Americans traveling abroad find the stares of the local people irritating. They become extremely self-conscious and often end up quite indignant about the “rudeness” of the people there, not realizing that the practice may be quite common in the country and may be nothing more than curiosity. Many English-speaking people in china have heard to complain about this.
学习啦在线学习网 “The language of the eyes”—one of the most common and ancient ways of exchanging feelings between boys and girls, men and women—is especially elaborate in the United States. Much study has been made of this: how people of the opposite sex show interest or indifference, encouragement or discouragement, approval or disapproval, affection or aversion. However, there are many differences even within the United States. Men use their eyes in different ways than women; there are differences of age, class or social status and geographical region; there are differences of ethnic background.
学习啦在线学习网 The story is told of a teenage Puerto Rican girl in a New York high school who was taken with a number of other girls to the principal for suspected smoking. Although there was no proof of any wrongdoing and although she had a good record, the principal decided she was guilty and suspended her. “There was something sly and suspicious about her,” he said in his report. “She just wouldn’t meet my eye. She wouldn’t look at me.”
When she was questioned by the principal it was true that she kept staring at the floor and refused to meet his eye. And in English there is a saying “Don’t trust anyone who won’t look at you in the eye.”
It so happened that one of the teachers had a Latin American background and knew about Puerto Rican culture. After talking with the girl’s parents, he went to the principal and explained that according to Puerto Rican culture, a good girl “does not meet the eyes of an adult.” Such behavior, he explained, “is a sign of respect and obedience.”
Fortunately, the principal accepted the explanation, admitted his mistake and the matter was settled properly. This difference in interpreting a simple eye gesture was a lesson in cultural diversity that he would not easily forget.
学习啦在线学习网 Rules about eye-language are numerous and complex. What has been mentioned gives a good idea of this; we shall not go further into detail.
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter
学习啦在线学习网 Smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. This is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries. However, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners. To illustrate, here is an excerpt from a letter by an American to a Chinese friend on nonverbal gestures that often cause cross-cultural misunderstanding:
“…One is the different meaning of laughter in China and American. When an American is parking his bicycle, for example, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. I have seen the same thing happen in the dining room, when a foreigner drops a plate quite by accident and feels badly and Chinese onlookers laugh, compounding his discomfort and causing anger and bad feeling.”
Such laughter, of course, is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he be a foreigner or a Chinese. It can convey a number of feelings: don’t take it so seriously; laugh it off, it’s nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc. However, for people unaware of this attitude, the reaction to such laughter is usually quite unpleasant and often generates ill feeling towards those laughing.
学习啦在线学习网 3.1.5 Gestures
Gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended. A wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions.
A well-known case is a gesture made by Winston Churchill, the doughty prime minister who led Britain through the Second World War. As he appeared before a large crowd, he was greeted with cheers and applause. The occasion was a momentous one and Churchill flashed the “V for victory” sign—with the forefinger and middle finger raised to form a “V”. Whether by mistake or ignorance, instead of facing the palm of his hand to the front, he made the “V” with the back of his hand towards the audience. Some in the crowd applauded; some gasped; some broke out in laughter. The prime minister’s gesture, as given, meant quite something else. Instead of “V for victory”, it meant something dirty; it was an obscene gesture!
学习啦在线学习网 3.2 Application of the body language
学习啦在线学习网 3.2.1 Greetings
Hoa has just arrived from Vietnam. Her cousin Phuong and some of his American friends are waiting at the airport to greet her. Hoa and Phuong are both excited about this meeting because they have been separated for seven years. As soon as Hoa enters the passenger terminal, Phuong introduces her to his friends Tom, Don, and Charles. Tom steps forward and hugs and kisses Hoa. She pushes him away and bursts into tears.
学习啦在线学习网 Among Chinese from Vietnam, if a boy hugs and kisses a girl in public, he insults her. Chinese culture in Vietnam is very strict about this, especially in the rural areas where Hoa grew up. She described her village: “After children are ten years old, boys and girls cannot play together. A boy and girl cannot date without their parents’ approval. A man and woman cannot hug or kiss if they’re not married.”
In Hoa’s village if anyone violated these rules, the villagers punished the girl by forcing her to kneel on the ground so they could spit at her and throw rocks at her. No wonder that Puong’s American friends frightened Hoa. She did not know what punishment for public hugging and kissing might be meted out to her in this country. She confused Tom, who by American standards was dong the right thing.
学习啦在线学习网 Eventually Hoa learned to be comfortable when greeted with hugs and kisses, accepting them as merely perfunctory acts.
学习啦在线学习网 Analogous to this situation is another in which Duane, a Chinese American employee, invited his non-Chinese boss, Mr. Keck, to a large family celebration. When Mr. Keck arrived, he shook hands with Duane and, when introduced to Duane’s grandmother, leaned over and kissed her on the cheek. This shocked the older woman, yet Mr. Keck was totally unaware that he had committed a social blunder. What he considered as a respectful act, grandmother considered disrespectful. Instead, Mr. Keck should have nodded to the older woman and offered her a verbal greeting.
◆ When establishing relations with Asians, avoid body contact. The safest form is to nod and give a verbal salutation. Follow their lead as the relationship changes.
Like customs everywhere, increased cross-cultural interaction brings about changes in habits; many Asian businesspeople have accommodated to the American handshaking tradition. On the other hand, in a situation where it seems as if bowing would still be the only polite move to make—especially to the Japanese—following these guidelines should make it easier.
学习啦在线学习网 ◆ When bowing to people from Japan, hands should slide down toward the knees or remain at the side.
学习啦在线学习网 ◆ Back and neck should be held in a rigid position, while eyes look downward.
◆ The person in the inferior position always bows longer and lower.
Those from India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh use the namaste for both greeting and farewells and as a sign of respect. They do this by holding their hands chest-high in a prayerlike position, then slightly nod the head; but they do not bow. American students of yoga who are taught by Asian teachers become familiar with this gesture that heralds the beginning of each session. Thais have a similar greeting, but they call it a wai.
学习啦在线学习网 While body contact is generally taboo in most Asian countries, elsewhere, body contact is expected; shying away from contact gives off negative signals.
◆ When greeting, people from Indian, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Thailand hold their hands together in front of their chins in a prayerlike position and nod their heads.
◆ When greeting, most Latinos expect body contact. Hugging and kissing on the check are acceptable for both the same sex and the opposite sex. The abrazo is commonplace—friends embrace and simultaneously pat each other on the back.
学习啦在线学习网 ◆ When greeting, most middle easterners, especially Muslims, avoid body contact with the opposite sex, but men may embrace and kiss one anther. Women may do the same. When shaking hands, men should avoid pulling their hands away too quickly.
◆ When greeting most Americans, expect soma body contract. Women kiss once on each cheek and hug; men shake hands. Men may also hug and kiss women on the cheek if they are close friends.
◆ When greeting orthodox Jews, avoid body contact with the opposite sex.
3.2.2 Signs of affection
Sheree Bykofsky, an American writer, is thrilled when a cruise ship line purchases copies of her hew romantic travel guide, the best place to kiss in and around New York City. The cruise line plans to give the books as dinner favors during their special valentine’s cruise.
学习啦在线学习网 They invite Sheree on board to greet the passengers and autograph their copies. The Americans and Europeans delight in meeting the author and having her sign their books. However, when Sheree visits the tables of the Japanese passengers, most of them refuse to acknowledge her.
Japanese people do not approve of public body contact and, thus, have developed a complex system of bowing to express relationships. Touching a member of the opposite sex is particularly repugnant to their sensitivities; consequently, kissing in public is considered a disgraceful act.
The Japanese snubbed Sheree because the title of her book suggested behavior that did not conform to their standards of respect. They would not acknowledge her because, in their eyes, she promoted vulgarity.
学习啦在线学习网 Asians from countries other than Japan are equally disapproving when they see American men and women or two men to walk in public holding hands. However, when they practice this sign of friendship in the states, they are frequently mistaken for homosexuals. This shocks them.
学习啦在线学习网 Same-sex hand holding or walking arm-in-arm also occurs among Latinos, French, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, and middle easterners.
◆ Most Japanese people strongly disapprove of public expression of affection by males and females through kissing or any other form of body contact.
学习啦在线学习网 ◆ Same-sex hand holding between Asians, middle-easterners, Latinos, or those from Mediterranean countries is a sign of friendship. Walking with arms on each other’s shoulders or with hands or arms linked also equates with camaraderie.
3.2.3 Physical contact
学习啦在线学习网 When Dorothy receives a wedding invitation to attend her Japanese neighbor’s wedding, she is thrilled. She has always admired the Yamashita family. She is very fond of lance, the about-to-be-married son, and feels extremely close to Grace, his mother. Dorothy feels honored to be included in the family festivities.
After the beautiful church ceremony, Dorothy stands in line to greet the bridal party. However, when Dorothy, a very affectionate person, steps forward to embrace the mother of the groom, Grace steps backward.
Dorothy feels rejected.
学习啦在线学习网 Even at such a joyous occasion as a wedding, Japanese customs about physical contact in public are not relaxed, even when taking place between the same sex. Truly, more formality is demonstrated in such situations. Consider the extreme reserve displayed at the 1993 royal wedding of crown prince Naruhito to Massako Owada. The physical acts of the royal couple consisted only of sipping sacred sake and making bows—no touching, no hugging, no kissing between the couple, certainly none by the wedding guests.
In Dorothy’s situation, even though she felt very close to Grace, she would have been more socially correct had she bowed her head slightly and then offered only verbal felicitations. In situations like these, it is best to observe the manner in which other wedding guests congratulate family members and then follow their example.
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language
A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities; for example: men don’t hug or embrace when meeting; a handshake is the most common gesture that goes with a greeting; waving a hand to say “goodbye” is the same; a frown shows displeasure, and the wrinkling of one’s nose is a sign of dislike, disgust or disapproval; nodding means “yes”, and shaking one’s head means “no”; pouting has the same meaning—displeasure, bad humor, resentment; a pat on the back of a man or boy indicates approval, praise, encouragement; gritting one’s teeth may express anger, fury, or determination.
The charts on the following pages provide examples of some of the difference:
学习啦在线学习网 Different Body Language, Same Meaning
Meaning Body Language in China Body Language in U.S.
“Come here” (beckoning someone to come) hand extended toward person,open palm, palm down, withall fingers crooked in a beckoning motion hand extended toward person,closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving backand forth (in china this samegesture would be consideredoffensive by many)
“Shame on you!” (semi-joking gesture) forefinger of one hand extended, tip touches one’s own face several times quickly; similar to scratching,but with the forefinger straight (usually with the remark “shame on you!”) forefinger of each hand extended, palms down in front of one’s body; one forefinger makes several brushing movements over the back of the other forefinger
‘I’m very full” (after a meal) one or both hands open, lightly patting one’s own stomach hand raised to throat, fingersextended, palm down (oftenwith the remark “I’m full upto here.”)
学习啦在线学习网 Same Body Language in Tow Cultures
but with Different Meaning
Meaning in China Body Language Meaning in U. S.
anger, irritation, frustration, remorse stamping one’s foot impatience
学习啦在线学习网 thank you; mutual positive feelings speaker or performerclapping at same timeaudience applauds applauding oneself;improper, immodest
Curiosity, sometimes surprise staring, gaping considered impolite;makes people embarrassed,self-conscious
学习啦在线学习网 disapproval, hissing “shah” calling for silence
学习啦在线学习网 seldom used;occasionally adults may pat head of children to show affection; patting the head of a teenager or adult would cause displeasure and can be insulting pat on head giving comfort, consolation or encouragement; also shows affection
学习啦在线学习网 Body Language and Meaning in One Culture;
学习啦在线学习网 No Equivalent in Other Culture
学习啦在线学习网 Body Language Meaning in U.S.
chewing one’s fingernails emotional stress, worried, doesn’t know what to do
thumbing one’s nose (one thumb on tip of own nose, fingers curled and moving together) defiance, contempt
学习啦在线学习网 wagging one’s finger (forefinger of one hand raised, other fingers clasped, the raised forefinger is wagged from side to side) warning not to do something; indicating that what the other person is doing is wrong
thumb down (arm crooked in front of body, closed fist, thumb extended down, one or several downward movements) rejection of a proposal, idea, person; nonverbal way of saying a strong “no”
winking (quick closing of one eye, generally with a smile and slight nod) may show several feelings; understanding, approval, encouragement, trying to get across a message, solidarity
touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger “It’s me” “I’m the one” (to westerners, the gesture would seem slightly funny)
using an open hand to cover one’s mouth while speaking (generally used by older people) to show confidentiality and secrecy; sometimes no meaning
using both hands (when one would be enough) in offering something to a visitor or another person respect
学习啦在线学习网 (when one’s tea cup is being refilled by the host or hostess) putting one or both hands upright, palm open, beside the cup “Thank you”
upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touch boy and girl in love; a good match
学习啦在线学习网 The examples in the charts are by no means complete, but are enough to illustrate the diversity of body language and to show the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language.
学习啦在线学习网 4. Conclusion
The study of body language should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
学习啦在线学习网 A word of general advice: when one communicates in a certain language, it is generally advisable to use the nonverbal behavior that goes with that particular language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better。
Acknowledgement
学习啦在线学习网 The authors gratefully acknowledge Xu Mingwu, Prof for his assistance in this study.
Bibliography
学习啦在线学习网 [1] Fast, Julius. 1971. Body Language . Pocket Books, N.Y.
[2] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan’en. 1997. The Practical Body Language. Hua Wen Press.
[3] Robinett, Betty W. 1978. Teaching English to speakers of other Language: Substance and Technique. McGraw-hill, N.Y.
[4] Samovar L. A. 1981. Understanding Intercultural Communication. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[5] Shen Minxian. 1999. The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School. Shanghai Education Vol. 12.
[6] Stern H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. London: Oxford university press.
学习啦在线学习网 [7] 毕继万 《跨文化非语言交际》，1999，外语教学与研究出版。
学习啦在线学习网 [8] 邓炎昌 《语言与文化》， 1989，外语教学与研究出版社。
[9] 赵艳萍 《文化与交际》， 1999，中国人民大学出版社。
大学生英语毕业论文篇2
浅析语境与词语的异常搭配
摘要：词语的异常搭配是为了语言的某种语用修辞效果而刻意创造的，正确地把握这种偏离常规所创造的修辞效果，就必须根据语言的内部语境和外部语境。语言之所以表情达意，是和语境不相分离的。本文就语境方面讨论如何理解在人脑中产生新鲜刺激的异常搭配。
关键词：语境 异常搭配
学习啦在线学习网 语言作为一个全民的交际工具，具有一套明确一致的规范，使语言使用者在这种共同遵守习惯化的语言规范下，顺利清楚地表达接受，才能交流思想感情达到相互了解，但是说话者或言语的创造者往往故意违反这种语言规范，创造性地损坏习以为常的标准的东西，从而达到某种“陌生化”效应。人往往具有“猎奇”的心理特征，对语言也是如此。常见的，出现频率高的语言形式常会失去“注意价值”和“记忆价值”，很难再引起人们的兴致，而言语的发出者为了吸引接受者的注意力，有意识地采用一些“不合情理”“不合语法规则”而又耐人寻味的新鲜语句，使接受者体验最初表面的模糊不解到思路回转，迁引联系后的“豁然开朗”的过程，使语言取得好的修辞效果，“把我们从语言对我们的感觉所产生的麻醉效力中解脱出来。”(特伦斯.霍克斯：《结构主义和符号学》)这种可称为“突出”(foregrounding)语言现象可发生在语言的各个层面，如语音层，字音层，句法层，词汇层，语义层，甚至是在方言，语域中出现。(胡壮麟，《语言学教程》)本篇集中讨论是词汇层面上的词汇的异常搭配现象。这是从词与词之前的横向组合来看。我们知道，词与词之间的搭配是受到语法限制和语义限制的。合乎语法规则和语义规则的是常规搭配，反之，则是异常搭配。在一首经典流行歌曲中有这么一句歌词：“……爱过你的爱，痛过你的痛，所以快乐着你的快乐，幸福着你的幸福……”乍一看，这样的动宾搭配似乎都不符合常规，违反了选择限制条件，无论从语法上看还是从语义上看。但这样的异常搭配反而给人以陌生感新鲜感，耐人回味，引起人们兴趣，进一步思考“爱过……爱，痛过……痛，快乐着……快乐，幸福着……幸福”的深义，也是这首歌传唱至今的“秘方”之一。
我们会认为异常搭配是用词不当，会影响到语言交际，但实际上把这种有意冲破搭配规则放在特定的语境中理解，则产生了“别有洞天”的修辞效果。我们知道，语言环境对理解语言至关重要。早在20世纪30年代，波兰人类学家Melinowski首度提出术语“context of situation”，他认为，语言是“行为的方式”即“言有所为”，不是“思想的信号”即“言有所述”。“话语和环境相互紧密地结合在一起，语言环境对于语言来说是必不可少的。”后来英国语言学Firth继承和发展了他的观点，把“context”的含义加以引申，认为不仅一句话的上句或下句，一段话的上段或下段是“context”而且语言与社会环境之间的关系也叫“context”。结合语境来诠释语言，这对如何理解词语的异常搭配似乎更为重要。接受者借助语言环境，包括所提供的上下文联系和非语言环境，包括社会场合情景，文化语境等，发挥想象和联想，将这些看似令人费解的组合重新加以诠释。所谓异常组合的“异常修辞效果”也只有建立在语境的基础上才能得到认可。反之，它们也只能保持语法或语义的“不合常理”“不合逻辑”而无深义。下面就分别从语言语境和非语言语境来阐释词语的异常搭配是如何做到“无理之妙”的。
1.语言语境和词语的异常搭配
学习啦在线学习网 语言语境，也可说是对语境的狭义理解，它指言语内部环境，既是口头上的前言后语的关系，书面上的前后文的关系。孤立的词语只有词典意义，不能表示信息的丰富内涵。某些词语，看似文不对题，或某些词语组合搭配看似矛盾，但联系了一定的上下文理解，其深层含义往往比“常规搭配”更具有注意价值和记忆价值。
(1) I had no outlook, but an uplook rathe. My place in society was at the bottom.
我没有人生观，倒是有“向上爬观”。我在社会上处于底层地位。
(Jake London: What Life Means to Me)
学习啦在线学习网 uplook是从前面的outlook仿造而来的，没有outlook，uplook无从理解，这个nonce word 是语言显得非常生动，表现出诙谐幽默的意味，取得了新奇别致的效果。
学习啦在线学习网 (2)I temped all His servitors, but to find my own betrayal in their constancy,
学习啦在线学习网 In faith to Him their fickleness to me.
Their traitorons trueness, and their loyal deceit.
(Francis Thompson, The Hound of Heaven)
我考验了他所有的侍从，结果发现
学习啦在线学习网 他们对我不讲信义而对他一如既往，
他们对他忠心耿耿而对我反复无常，
他们奸诈的忠实，忠实的狡诈。
如果我们单看traitorons trueness 和loyal deceit 是两组语义矛盾的搭配，是异常搭配。但结合上文，便不难看出，侍从对外人不讲信义反复无常，对主人忠心耿耿，一如既往，不正是一种“奸诈的忠实，忠实的狡诈”吗?这样的组合搭配不仅在形式上以超常新颖的面目吸引我们，而且对语言所表达的内容也起了积极作用，使我们在诠释其异常性的同时，更好的理解了作者“如此用心”的深意。
学习啦在线学习网 (3)《中国青年报》(1990年某日)上一篇报导登出“最长寿的青年李亚飞……”“最长寿”和“青年”在没有任何语境的提示下是一组完全不相容的两个词语：既然是“最长寿”的又何来“青年”呢，这就引起读者的好奇心，于是在下文中揭开这个迷：“这个李亚飞……从水中救起了30个人的生命，俗云，救人一命，延年益寿，30个生命的延续，你说李亚飞的寿命有多长呢……”读到这里，我们才恍然大悟。作者用这样不合逻辑的矛盾搭配，使读者对李的英雄事迹记忆更深刻，也更突出文章所要宏扬的舍己为人之崇高品质。
学习啦在线学习网 2.非语言语境与词语的异常搭配
非语言语境也可称为外部语境，它包括社会历史背景，包括现实社会环境，包括时代、民族、地区，包括文化传统，生活习俗，包括地点、场合、对象，还包括使用语言的人物、身份、处境，心情等。在理解词语的异常搭配的过程中，更不能脱离非语言语境。因为异常搭配的创造是一个有意识有目的的活动，发话者或作者不凭空随意将两个毫无关联的词语拼凑在一起，为了“创新”而创新，即使这样的异常搭配也是毫无意义的。它们必将根据具体语言环境，根据某种文化根源的理据，根据他自己当时的心情等“有感而发”，只有将词语的异常搭配结合语境考虑，它才具有讨论的价值。所以特殊语境是词语异常搭配的基础，也是检验其修辞效果的条件。下面我们分别来看几个例子。
(4) “蜜蜂是在酿蜜，也是在酿造生活;不是为自己，而是为了人类酿造最甜的生活。”
(《荔枝蜜》)
“酿造”是“利用发酵作用制造”，按常规搭配，它只能和“蜂蜜，酒，醋，酱油”等搭配，不能和“生活”搭配，而这里为什么能用这样的超常搭配，而不选择“建设生活”这个读者可以直接接受的组合搭配呢?这就要和外部语境联系起来理解。首先，作者和读者都具有这样的常识：他们都知道，蜂蜜和美好生活，酿蜜和建设美好生活有两个共同点：第一，蜜甜，美好生活也甜，都令人舒心。第二，蜂蜜与美好生活的都是长期辛劳创造积累的成果。这是两个相互能联系的客观基础。仅此并不够，还需通过想象和联想将两者联系起来，这是心理基础，所以客观基础和心理基础构成的外部语境，为实现这个异常搭配的特殊修辞效果提供了条件和可能性。
(5) The talk about raising taxes was a red flag to many voters.
此例中，the talk was a red flag是异常搭配，在语义上是不合逻辑的，red flag是来自西班牙斗牛的民俗，公牛看见红布就处于激动、愤怒的感情状态。该搭配通过文化背景知识让人产生联想，形象地表现出“关于增税的谈论”对选民的刺激，就像red flag 对公牛产生刺激一样。The talk was a red flag 的联想的展开离不开red flag 所出的文化世界，就这个异常搭配的创造来说，它不仅仅服从于具体语境，而且还服从于文化指令，将语义寓于某种形象之中。而就其效果来说，正是文化为我们提供外部语境，使我们把握这个异常搭配的实际意旨。
学习啦在线学习网 所以在非语言语境中文化语境的影响力是不容忽视的，当今社会中出现的许多新颖的词语异常搭配也是社会文化语境的一种体现。也只有透过社会文化风潮这面透视镜，我们才能揭示出这些新鲜词组隐藏在不合理的字面意义下的合理性。再如：在经历“红色年代”的汉语词汇，如今又步入了一个充满生机的绿色时代：绿色办公，绿色电脑，绿色希望，绿色电视机，绿色冰箱等。这些新鲜的组合搭配在“绿色文化”进入社会主流之前是不能接受或是不合常理的。究其原因，主要是环境文化的影响。高度发达的饿工业文明，让人类的环境付出了高昂的代价，资源面临枯竭，污染日益严重，生态严重破坏，人和自然的矛盾空前尖锐。有了这样的文化背景，我们就能正确理解这些异常搭配的真实含义了，同时，它们也在进一步推动所体现文化的充实和发展。
结语
孤立地看一个词，一个句子，是看不出好坏，优劣，得失的。语言运用得好不好是对语境而言的。创造者为了达到某种修辞效果，创造某种突出价值，偏离突出语言的常规组合方法和规范，对语言进行创造性的再组合，其过程离不开语言本身的语境和外部语境的参与。同样，在接受者对这些改造后的搭配组合进行意义的重新建构过程中，也必须结合各种语境所提供的信息，将这些看似费解的词语后的语用意义挖掘出来。从中也可看出，异常搭配绝不是胡乱搭配，绝不是脱离语境一时兴起而玩的文字游戏。它的产生和运用只能在特定的语境中，否则那就成了真正的“异常”了。
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